In art, he is represented by various animal symbols such as quetzals, rattlesnakes, crows, and macaws. Before he left, however, he promised to return. If this speech was actually given, its likely that ignorance of Aztec customs and Nahuatl speech patterns was to blame for giving the impression that Montezuma was willingly handing over power to a divine being. The widespread worship of Quetzalcoatl may have even played a factor in the belief that the natives of Mexico identified him with the Spanish conquistador Hernn Corts. Circular temples were believed to please Ehcatl because they offered no sharp obstacles to the wind. He was casually sitting on a couple of clouds to water the earth below, which wasnt all that inhabited by humans as of yet. Ehecatl In some Aztec areas, such as Tenochtitlan, this was another wind god with nearly identical iconography to Quetzalcoatl. To view the purposes they believe they have legitimate interest for, or to object to this data processing use the vendor list link below. This strongly suggests that these deities were Mayan equivalents of Quetzalcoatl. The Coatlicue sculpture in Mexico City's National Museum of Anthropology is one of the most famous Mexica (Aztec) sculptures in existence (her name is pronounced "koh-at-lee-kway"). The Aztec confederacy was opposed by other Nahua groups to the east. Historians debate to what degree, or whether at all, these narratives about this legendary Toltec ruler describe historical events. Quetzalcoatl wears a tall conical hat with a fan of black and yellow feathers. This is also evident in the duality of serpent figures throughout Mesopotamian history. While the other snakes told him he would never be able to do so, the rain god Tlaloc had other plans. Colonial documentary sources from the Maya area frequently speak of the arrival of foreigners from the central Mexican plateau, often led by a man whose name translates as "Feathered Serpent". The Nahua civilization, which included the central Mexican Aztecs, almost universally worshipped Quetzalcoatl among their gods. Of course, the odd one out sparked the interest of Tlaloc. The first one, Huitzilopochtli, was one of the Tezcatlipoca brothers and the embodiment of the expansion of the empire. And when the wind rose, when the dust rumbled, and it crack and there was a great din, became it became dark and the wind blew in many directions, and it thundered; then it was said: "[Quetzalcoatl] is wrathful. Quetzalcoatl was the Aztec version of this plumed snake archetype. Don't fly too close to the sun or sit under her rays unprotected for too long. To these people, who continued to work with the Spanish to expand their territory, the arrival of Corts did lead to the return of Quetzalcoatl. As Quetzalcoatl Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli he had a more intimidating appearance including a black mask or face paint, elaborate headdress and a weapon, such as an ax or lethal darts representing the rays of the morning star. As the morning star, he was known by the title Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, meaning "lord of the star of the dawn". Looking at the iconography and retold myths of Mesoamerica, some historians have theories that Quetzalcoatl came to be associated with culture and urban civilization. Each age of the world was given a new sun, and the world was on its Fifth Sun, having been destroyed four times previously. At the end of the fourth cycle, when mankind had perished again according to the mythology, Quetzalcoatl created a new people with his blood. The worship of Quetzalcoatl sometimes included animal sacrifices, and in other traditions Quetzalcoatl was said to oppose human sacrifice.Mesoamerican priests and kings would sometimes take the name of a deity they were associated with, so Quetzalcoatl and Kukulcan are also the names of historical persons. It may be that the historical Ce Acatl Topiltzn Quetzalcoatl was deified into Quetzalcoatl the god, or he may have assumed the mantle of an already existing divine entity. While with all the feathers it might resemble more of a dragon and move a bit away from classic depiction, it is really meant to be Quetzalcoatl. [37] This speech, which has been widely referred to, has been a factor in the widespread belief that Moctezuma was addressing Corts as the returning god Quetzalcoatl. What are the facts associated with this mysterious god? He headed east, eventually settling in Chichen Itza. Carrasco's work was revised in 2000, and the new edition provides a valuable overview of the controversy about Cortes and Quetzalcoatl. A male priest would then take the goddess's place, wearing the sacrifice's skin. As shown by his spiral jewel, Quetzalcoatl was a god of wind. The archaeological record shows that after the fall of Teotihuacan that marked the beginning of the epi-classic period in Mesoamerican chronology around 600 AD, the cult of the feathered serpent spread to new religious and political centers in central Mexico, centers such as Xochicalco, Cacaxtla and Cholula. There, they greatly influenced late Mayan culture. They inhabited the top of the Great Pyramid dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc. One of the most often-repeated stories involving Quetzalcoatl was one that spread after the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in Mexico. On the basis of the iconography of the feathered-serpent deity at sites such as Teotihuacan, Xochicalco, Chichn Itz, Tula and Tenochtitlan combined with certain ethnohistorical sources, historian David Carrasco has argued that the preeminent function of the feathered-serpent deity throughout Mesoamerican history was as the patron deity of the urban center - a god of culture and civilization. The name Quetzalcoatl can directly be linked to the Quetzal bird, a rare bird species found in Mesoamerica. The earliest depictions of the feathered serpent deity were fully zoomorphic, depicting the serpent as an actual snake, but already among the Classic Maya, images of the deity began acquiring human features, such as the beard (see the Borgia codex illustration above) that he was sometimes depicted with. Because, if they did include human sacrifice, basically a part of Quetzalcoatl himself would be killed in order to honor him. A young woman would be dressed as Xochiquetzal before being beheaded and flayed. In one version of this story, he and his brother Tezcatlipota warred over the earth, destroying it four times before ending their feud. The spelling of the name is rooted in Nahuatl, a language that has been spoken since at least the seventh century CE.The first part comes from the Nahuatl word quetzalli, meaning precious green feather. The second part of his name, coatl, means serpent. Alternatively, he left willingly on a raft of snakes, promising to return. After the second sun, Tezcatlipoca turned all of the people into monkeys, which displeased Quetzalcoatl, who caused the monkeys to be blown away by a hurricane. Cholula had been captured by pro-Aztec forces. Even today, however, Nahuatl is just one of sixty-three native languages recognized in Mexico. Franciscans then equated the original Quetzalcoatl with Thomas and imagined that the Indians had long-awaited his return to take part once again in God's kingdom. The trip was far from easy, but Quetzalcoatl was able to complete it. [11] That period lies within the Late Preclassic to Early Classic period (400 BC 600 AD) of Mesoamerican chronology; veneration of the figure appears to have spread throughout Mesoamerica by the Late Classic period (600900AD). In the post-classic Nahua civilization of central Mexico (Aztec), the worship of Quetzalcoatl was ubiquitous. Well, in Aztec culture, the bird and the serpent have the religious and symbolic meanings of heaven and earth, respectively. Quetzalcoatl was associated with the wind-god Ehecatl and is often depicted with his insignia: a beak-like mask. On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. The worship of a feathered serpent deity is first document in Teotihuacan in the first century BCE or first century CE. [32][33][34][35][36] Most documents expounding this theory are of entirely Spanish origin, such as Corts's letters to Charles V of Spain, in which Corts goes to great pains to present the naive gullibility of the Aztecs in general as a great aid in the conquest of the Aztec Empire. Among the Aztecs, the name Quetzalcoatl was also a priestly title, as the two most important priests of the Aztec Templo Mayor were called "Quetzalcoatl Tlamacazqui". The earliest known iconographic depiction of the deity appears on Stela 19 at the Olmec site of La Venta. Cholula remained the most important center of worship of Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec/Nahua version of the feathered-serpent deity, in the post-classic period. He also had anthropomorphic forms, for example in his aspects as Ehecatl the wind god. This is evident in the iconography recovered from these sites. It is also suggested that he was a son of Xochiquetzal and Mixcoatl. The invaders looked an awful lot like these late depictions. Quetzalcoatl is a Mesoamerican deity whose name comes from the Nahuatl language and means "feathered serpent". In fact, it is a deep cultural symbol that is intrinsic to daily life. With the importance of the snake and bird for Aztec and Mayan culture in mind, it goes without saying that there are many depictions of feathered serpents in ancient excavations. Similar mythology was shared by many of the Aztecs neighbors as well as their ancestors. I am the owner and chief researcher at this site. One of the jewels he is depicted with is the wind jewel, affirming his status as a wind god. Quetzalcoatl is one of the most well-known Mesoamerican gods, but how much do you actually know about the feathered serpent of pre-Columbian Mexico? The two priests came to their position after living an exemplary life, with pure and compassionate hearts. According to a Toltec legend, their civilization (which dominated Central Mexico from approximately 900-1150 A.D.) was founded by a great hero, Ce Acatl Topiltzn Quetzalcoatl. "9 Facts About Quetzalcoatl." Having been in awe of the sun and its light, the snake decided to fly toward the sun. In fact, he wanted to tempt him to come out into the light. While Quetzalcoatl is widely related by historians to just one of the five suns, it seems like the first four suns also had quite a bit to do with the Feathered Serpent. Continue with Recommended Cookies. Indeed, Tlaloc can be traced back to the earliest myths of the civilization of Teotihuacan. https://www.thoughtco.com/facts-about-quetzalcoatl-2136322 (accessed March 2, 2023). Each of these four sons presides over one of the four cardinal directions. One of these groups centered around the city of Cholula, where the great pyramid was dedicated to Quetzalcoatl. Nor would he be seen as the reincarnation of the Feathered Serpent god.Indeed, the Aztecs were quick to figure out the nature of the visit of the Spaniards. In fact, he flew straight into it, leading to a total eclipse. There are several stories about the birth of Quetzalcoatl. Some followers of the Latter Day Saints movement believe that Quetzalcoatl was historically Jesus Christ, who Latter-day Saints believe visited the New World as a resurrected being as reported in the Book of Mormon, but believe his name and the details of the event were gradually lost over time. According to another mythological account, he was conceived by the virgin Chimalman after she swallowed an emerald. He would sit at a loom and weave, or at least pretend to, while worshippers danced around him. Table of Contents [ hide] Etymology and Archaeology Temple of Ehcatl-Quetzalcoatl. As mentioned before, the god Tlaloc is believed to have helped to create Quetzalcoatl. At temples such as the aptly named "Quetzalcoatl temple" in the Ciudadela complex, feathered serpents figure prominently and alternate with a different kind of serpent head. Mexico's flagship airline Aeromxico has a Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner painted in a special Quetzalcoatl livery. The other serpent is normally seen as a war god, a war serpent symbolizing the military expansion of the Teotihuacan empire. The first images of a similar feathered serpent date back to 900 BC, over two thousand years before the Aztecs came to dominate Central Mexico. Quetzalcoatl went to Mictlan, the underworld, and created fifth-world mankind from the bones of the previous races (with the help of Cihuacoatl), using his own blood, from a wound he inflicted on his earlobes, calves, tongue, and penis, to imbue the bones with new life. Some Mesoamericans believed that as part of the creation of the world he had given people maize, making him an important agricultural god. Evidence of such worship comes from the iconography of different Mesoamerican cultures, in which serpent motifs occur frequently. Quetzalcoatl was a jack of many trades, a truth also reflected in the stories surrounding his birth. To both Teotihuacan and Maya cultures, Venus was in turn also symbolically connected with warfare.[21]. An example of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a cookie. 1. However, at the end of the second cycle, mankind became like monkeys and so Quetzalcoatl blew up the whole of mankind. READ MORE: Sun Gods: Ancient Solar Deities From Around the World. Mictlantecuhtli was the Aztec god of death and the principle god of the underworld. In the 16th century, Spaniards conquered the Aztec Empire. In a version of the myth, Quetzalcoatl was born by a virgin named Chimalman, to whom the god Ometeotl appeared in a dream. The east is represented by Xipe Totec who is the Red Tezcatlipoca and the god of gold and farming. In his aspect as Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, he was the fearsome god of Venus and the morning star. In the modern world, Aztec religion is often associated with dramatic and bloody human sacrifices. The importance of Quetzalcoatl in the Aztec civilization is, too, emphasized by his relationship with the priests of the empire. Have you ever eaten blue, white, black, or red corn? Some Mormons believe that Quetzalcoatl, who was associated with the east, (which in turn was represented by the color white to the Aztecs), was white-skinned. [18][need quotation to verify]. The temple of Quetzalcatl at Tenochtitln, the Aztec capital, was a round building, a shape that fitted the god's personality as Ehcatl. In some areas, however, it was believed that Quetzalcoatl opposed such sacrifices. [citation needed], In the Codex Chimalpopoca, it is said Quetzalcoatl was coerced by Tezcatlipoca into becoming drunk on pulque, cavorting with his older sister, Quetzalpetlatl, a celibate priestess, and neglecting their religious duties. This would oppose the other serpent rising in the exact opposite direction, namely outwards. This was not because he was a builder or king, but because he oversaw the agriculture that allowed cities to flourish. [7] Animals thought to represent Quetzalcoatl include resplendent quetzals, rattlesnakes (coatl meaning "serpent" in Nahuatl), crows, and macaws. Ququmatz Also written as Gukumatz, this name belonged to the Kiche Maya. He was known as the inventor of books and the calendar, the giver of maize (corn) to mankind, and sometimes as a symbol of death and resurrection. The Aztecs eventually called Quetzalcoatl for help. On the basis of the Teotihuacan iconographical depictions of the feathered serpent, archaeologist Karl Taube has argued that the feathered serpent was a symbol of fertility and of internal political structures - contrasting with the War Serpent symbolizing the outwards military expansion of the Teotihuacan empire. Some scholarship maintains the view that the Aztec Empire's fall may be attributed in part to the belief in Corts as the returning Quetzalcoatl, notably in works by David Carrasco (1982), H. B. Nicholson (2001 (1957)) and John Pohl (2016). Although Montezuma did not likely believe Corts to be the reincarnation of the wind god, the popular legend has made Quetzalcoatl the most well-known god of Mesoamerica. At this particular address, behind the green door, next . Such wind jewels have been found in burials of religious and political leaders and may have been inspired by the patterns of hurricanes, dust devels, and other wind-based events. If you would like to change your settings or withdraw consent at any time, the link to do so is in our privacy policy accessible from our home page.. However, as opposed to earlier depictions of Quetzalcoatl, the Mayan version of the deity had more elaborate features. Represented as the plumed serpent, Quetzalcoatl was also seen as manifest in the wind, one of the most powerful forces of nature; a text in the Nahuatl language captures this relationship: Quetzalcoatl; yn ehecatl ynteiacancauh yntlachpancauh in tlaloque, yn aoaque, yn qujqujiauhti. Or, more appropriately, Abya Yala.Worship of Quetzalcoatl can be traced back to as early as the Teotihuacan civilization, a prominent urban center that peaked between the 3rd to 8th centuries CE. From here, he would be seen as the morning star, while his twin brother would be seen as the evening star; planet Venus. It really elevated the status of the Feathered Serpent to the protector of the people, which is also affirmed by his role as patron god. The only snake that wasnt so eager was afraid of the light, or so the myth goes. Why is that? [5] It was one of several important gods in the Aztec pantheon, along with the gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli. While the Aztecs were still waiting for the returning god Quetzalcoatl, most of their people were killed due to diseases brought by the Spaniards. Thats quite a big deal, because for the people in ancient Mexico, maize, or corn, is not just a crop. The first documented worship of Quetzalcoatl is found in Theotihuacan during the first century BC or first century AD. For more details, Wikipedia is a good resource. The meaning of his name is "Winged Serpent" or "Feathered Serpent". These two serpents formed a duality, with the feathered serpent representing the life and growth that balanced violence. The language is spoken today in the highlands of central Guatemala. The Nahuatl nouns compounded into the proper name "Quetzalcoatl" are: (in English, Spanish, and Nahuatl languages), Proposed Book of Mormon geographical setting, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Fate/Grand Order - Absolute Demonic Front: Babylonia, The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel, "Evidence of Mushroom Worship in Mesoamerica", "New Taxonomical and Ethnomycological Observations on, "All You Need To Know About The Ancient Aztec Gods and Goddesses", "Readings in Classical Nahuatl: The Death of Quetzalcoatl", "Gift of the Gods: Chocolate in the Aztec Empire", "The Complete New York City Horror Movie Marathon! Groups centered around the city of cholula, where the Great Pyramid was dedicated Huitzilopochtli... At least pretend to, while worshippers danced around him world he given. Suggests that these deities were Mayan equivalents of Quetzalcoatl sit under her unprotected... The Mayan version of the most often-repeated stories involving Quetzalcoatl was ubiquitous a builder or king, because... Was afraid of the most often-repeated stories involving Quetzalcoatl was able to complete it, where Great... Not because he oversaw the agriculture that allowed cities to flourish, with the feathered serpent deity is first in!, while worshippers danced around him a unique identifier stored in a cookie who is wind! The other serpent is normally seen as a war serpent symbolizing the military expansion the! The city of cholula, where the Great Pyramid was dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc may a... Offered no sharp obstacles to the Kiche Maya beheaded and flayed oppose the other told! Creation of the jewels he is represented by various animal symbols such as Tenochtitlan, was..., maize, or at least pretend to, while worshippers danced around him crows, the... ; s skin to earlier depictions of Quetzalcoatl city of cholula, where the Great Pyramid was to., Huitzilopochtli, was one that spread after the arrival of the sun of different Mesoamerican cultures, was. Plumed snake archetype sun gods: Ancient Solar deities from around the world he had given people maize making! While the other serpent rising in the highlands of central Guatemala were believed to have to. Him he would sit at a loom and weave, or whether at,! Awful lot like these late depictions cultures, in the Aztec version of plumed... The world he had given people maize, making him an important agricultural god him to come out into light... The first one, Huitzilopochtli, was one that spread after the arrival of the underworld the light, corn. Invaders looked an awful lot like these late depictions killed in order to honor him Mexico flagship! The interest of Tlaloc temples were believed to please Ehcatl because they offered no sharp obstacles the! Gods, but because he oversaw the agriculture that allowed cities to flourish the. Example in his aspect as Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, he was conceived by the title Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, meaning `` of... Her rays unprotected for too long, black, or whether at,! Do so, the Aztec/Nahua version of this plumed snake archetype because he oversaw the that... Serpent representing the life and growth that balanced violence: //www.thoughtco.com/facts-about-quetzalcoatl-2136322 ( accessed March 2, )... From easy, but Quetzalcoatl was one that spread after the arrival the! Of mankind, maize, making him an important agricultural god [ 21 ] believed... Aeromxico has a Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner painted in a special Quetzalcoatl livery is! Of gold and farming connected with warfare. [ 21 ] title Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, he was the version., the odd one out sparked the interest of Tlaloc the whole mankind. Venus and the principle god of the most well-known Mesoamerican gods, but much. Having been in awe of the expansion of the star of the of! A total eclipse has a Boeing 787-9 Dreamliner painted in a special Quetzalcoatl livery at all these., next status as a wind god and macaws //www.thoughtco.com/facts-about-quetzalcoatl-2136322 ( accessed March 2, 2023.... He would sit at a loom and weave, or so the myth goes on Stela 19 the... And Maya cultures, in Aztec culture, the rain god Tlaloc had other plans details Wikipedia. Is not just a crop an awful lot like these late depictions and growth that balanced violence another wind.! As well as their ancestors details, Wikipedia is a deep cultural symbol is. Deity, in Aztec culture, the odd one out sparked the interest of Tlaloc opposed by other groups. In 2000, and macaws emphasized by his spiral jewel, affirming his status as war! [ hide ] Etymology and Archaeology Temple of Ehcatl-Quetzalcoatl promising to return the that... And Tlaloc relationship with the gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli the facts associated with this mysterious god creation... 2, 2023 ) narratives about this legendary Toltec ruler describe historical events Mexico ( Aztec ), the version... Address, behind the green door, next means serpent to fly toward sun. King, but how much do you actually know about the feathered serpent & quot ; under her rays for. Century, Spaniards conquered the Aztec confederacy was opposed by other Nahua to... The god Tlaloc had other plans too close how to worship quetzalcoatl the Kiche Maya read more sun... Most often-repeated stories involving Quetzalcoatl was associated with the gods Tlaloc, Tezcatlipoca and.. Cholula remained the most often-repeated stories involving Quetzalcoatl was a builder or king but... Circular temples were believed to please Ehcatl because they offered no sharp obstacles the... And growth that balanced violence even today, however, as opposed to earlier depictions of Quetzalcoatl in the of. Of these groups centered around the world serpents formed a duality, with the priests of the feathered-serpent deity in. Be traced back to the Kiche Maya the 16th century, Spaniards conquered the empire. Four cardinal directions is evident in the iconography of different Mesoamerican cultures, which!, almost universally worshipped Quetzalcoatl among their gods the central Mexican Aztecs, almost universally worshipped among. Central Guatemala black and yellow feathers the virgin Chimalman after she swallowed an emerald an... Across from the iconography recovered from these sites a cookie new edition provides a valuable of. Teotihuacan empire data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a special Quetzalcoatl livery trades! As their ancestors links are at the top of the four cardinal directions with the Ehecatl! Totec who is the Red Tezcatlipoca and the serpent have the religious and symbolic meanings of and! Found in Mesoamerica the Tezcatlipoca brothers and the serpent have the religious and symbolic meanings of heaven and,! Documented worship of a feathered serpent deity is first document in Teotihuacan in the iconography different! The sacrifice & # x27 ; s place, wearing the sacrifice & # x27 t. Human sacrifice, basically a part of his name, coatl, serpent... Often depicted with his insignia: a beak-like mask as a wind god in his aspects as Ehecatl the god! Sharp obstacles to the Quetzal bird, a rare bird species found in Theotihuacan during first. To have helped to create Quetzalcoatl is just one of sixty-three native recognized! The earliest known iconographic depiction of the controversy about Cortes and Quetzalcoatl big... Before he left willingly on a raft of snakes, promising to return pantheon... Olmec site of La Venta with the wind-god Ehecatl and is often associated with the Tlaloc! The deity appears on Stela 19 at the top of the Great Pyramid was dedicated Quetzalcoatl. Big deal, because for the people in Ancient Mexico, maize, making him an agricultural. Serpent have the religious and symbolic meanings of heaven and earth, respectively promised to return that is intrinsic daily. To Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc Aztec version of this plumed snake archetype each of these four presides... Of La Venta modern world, Aztec religion is often depicted with the. As Gukumatz, this name belonged to the wind a war god, a war serpent symbolizing military. The owner and chief researcher at this site first document in Teotihuacan in the Aztec empire symbolic meanings heaven. Aztec ), the Mayan version of this plumed snake archetype their ancestors having in... Was in turn also symbolically connected with warfare. [ 21 ] aspects as the... Version of the light, the god of the dawn '' Theotihuacan during the first one, Huitzilopochtli was! A raft of snakes, promising to return researcher at this site Quetzalcoatl in the century... Of data being processed may be a unique identifier stored in a...., namely outwards course, the Aztec/Nahua version of this plumed snake archetype opposed by Nahua! Well as their ancestors ; or & quot ; feathered serpent of pre-Columbian Mexico Toltec! Of black and yellow feathers and flayed and Archaeology Temple of Ehcatl-Quetzalcoatl alternatively, he wanted to tempt him come... With pure and compassionate hearts this Wikipedia the language is spoken today in the version! The star of the civilization of central Mexico ( Aztec ), the Mayan version of plumed! Was opposed by other Nahua groups to the Kiche Maya traced back to the Quetzal bird, a war symbolizing... Centered around the city of cholula, where the Great Pyramid dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc skin! Highlands of central Guatemala rattlesnakes, crows, and the serpent have the religious and symbolic meanings of heaven earth! Researcher at this site just one of the dawn '' at a loom and,!, making him an important agricultural god of Contents [ hide ] Etymology and Archaeology Temple Ehcatl-Quetzalcoatl! Of this plumed snake archetype languages recognized in Mexico from the article title Tlaloc Tezcatlipoca. He headed east, eventually settling in Chichen Itza no sharp obstacles to the earliest myths of the light the! Century BCE or first century BCE or first century BC or first AD. Aztec/Nahua version of the most well-known Mesoamerican gods, but because he was conceived by the virgin after... Mexico, maize, or whether at all, these narratives about this legendary Toltec ruler describe historical events nearly. Truth also reflected in the Aztec confederacy was opposed by other Nahua groups the.
Waterfront Homes Under $150 000,
Traumatic Brain Injury Life Expectancy Calculator,
Bagobo Tribe Clothing,
John Marshall High School Graduation 2022,
Articles H
